Definition of Audio Literacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Definition of Audio Literacy - Essay Example Audio materials are developed learning skills in which websites are regularly updated with new content and has a variety of listening skills. Listening and hearing are the two essential components of audio literacy. The two are different terms but have close association. Primarily, hearing is a physiological process while listening is more of psychological and they remain the cornerstone of audio literacy. In the process of passing information from one person to another, the sender encodes and expresses the idea he intends the receiver to capture. The receiver will then interpret the message depending on the understanding of the message, which is determined by the attention span. The authenticity and usefulness of the audio literacy is determined by the ability of the students to use the audio materials effectively and efficiently. Too low or too high sounds may not be useful to the health of the students. It may not assist them in the learning process. Essentially, audio literacy remains critical in the educational pedagogy, and it intertwines with the visual literacy (Smaldino, Lowther & Rusell,

Composite Cycle Frame Manufacturing Methods Project Assignment - 1

Composite Cycle Frame Manufacturing Methods Project - Assignment Example It also seeks to look at the various effective ways which hospitals and related institutions can store such records. It is important that they keep health records using reliable methods so that they ensure reliability of the data and easy retrieval of the same. Health informatics deals with ways of storing, retrieving and using information related to health and biomedicine. It has tools that are used in achieving storage and use of the data like computers, information systems and medical terms among others. Health informatics is also known as Health information systems. Areas of application include nursing and in public health. There are international standards that have been set regarding health informatics to ensure a standardized way of medical informatics (Joslin & Kahn 2005). Using computers and technology has been the best way to store data of patients in medicine all over the world. Electronic health records is the most reliable and accurate way of storing data because computers are more accurate than humans. Health institutions do not longer store records of patients manually like before the emergence of technology (Whetton, 2005). A good example of such online application programs is the ICD9-CM. they are codes used to store information of Diabetic patients in health institutions. The United States department for health is encouraging health institutions to migrate to the use of electronic means to store data. International Classification of Diseases (ICD) is an effective way of tracking many types of diseases in the world. Knowledge of this coding method is very important for health professionals because it helps in maintaining proper health records in hospitals. It is a code that contains a set of volumes with some instructions. It contains volume one to volume three which gives the procedures. Volume one

Target vs. Walmart Essay Example for Free

Target vs. Walmart Essay Once an employee is hired, a lot of money is invested to ensure proper training of each and every employee. Target does their best to try and ensure they hire not only good team members, but great managers to lead the team members. After an employee is hired, they instill their motto of â€Å"Fast, Fun, and Friendly† into each employee. Target wants each employee to follow this motto. Even lingo at Target has made a positive impact. For example, Target does not call people who come and in shop customers, instead they call them guests. They want to ensure their guests feel at home. My research is about Target being the best in customer service compared to other retail chains. I am going to find studies, articles, and do an experiment with the class. I plan on showing evidence that because Target has implemented different techniques, which is what makes them successful. I used to never shop at Target because other retail stores are closer to my home. After working at Target and seeing how the store was put together and the type of training employees go through, I will always be a Target customer. While working at Target, I always thought to myself, â€Å"If only Wal-Mart would implement the technologies and training that Target employees receive, they would be unbeatable. † I have no idea why Wal-Mart won’t get walkies for every sales floor employee. When I walk into a Walmart, Meijer, Kroger, etc. , I know I will have a really hard time finding an employee who knows where the items are that I need. When I go into a Target, I have confidence that any sales floor person can help me. My research is from personal knowledge and from a journal article I found through the UC library website. In July 2010, Consumer Reports did a rating of 11 stores and in best to worst the stores ranked were: Costco, Dillard’s, Kohl’s, JCPenny, Target, Sam’s Club, Sears, Macy’s, Meijer, Wal-Mart, and Kmart. I’m not at all surprised that Wal-Mart was second to last and also not surprised that Target is right up there with department stores. Wal-Mart had the worst possible rating in: returns, checkout, store problems, and product quality of clothing items. In conclusion, if Wal-Mart would focus just as much attention on customer service as they do low prices, they would be unstoppable. Walkies may be a large expense, however, I believe they will pay for themselves. They will be able to find items quicker for customers, check out will run smoother, and because of the better customer service, they will see an increase in repeat customers. I worked at Target from _________________ I got to personally experience what great team work really is. In that time, I gained valuable skills that I’ll have for the rest of my life. Each Target store is a manager-led store. For the most part, Target does a really good job hiring excellent people who can lead teams. However, in my case, sometimes Target lets bad apples slip through the cracks. Target has a store leader, Executive Team Leaders for each department, team leaders for each department, two brand team members in softlines (clothing, shoes, and accessories) and one brand team in hardlines. From what I personally witnessed, if you have great managers team members will work together more effectively and be happy. In softlines, the ETL and team lead were very bias and cruel. Softlines constantly had people switching out of the department, were constantly complaining, and softlines had a higher turn-over rate. How Stores Stack Up! † Consumer Reports Vol. 75, Issue 7, p. 20-21 (July 2010) For my presentation to the class, I’m going to do an experiment. If the library allows me, I am going to borrow two walkies. If walkies are unavailable, I can use cell phones as a backup. I’m going to ask for 4 volunteers. There will be Team Target and Team Wal-Mart. I will give one pers on on each team an item that a customer is going to ask for (I will be the customer). I will then give Team Target the walkies. I will ask the people with the items to go anywhere they want to inside or outside of Flory, out of sight. I will then pretend I’m a customer and ask both people for the item that I sent with their team mates. I will have both teams use the current communication method that the stores they represent use. Team Target will get on the walkie and say, â€Å"Team, where can I find (whatever item it is I will give them)? † The other Target team member will say, â€Å"It’s in (and give their location). † Team Wal-Mart will use the guessing method and have to look for where their team member is. I will time them both and see who can help the customer faster.

Identifying Non-traditional Gifted Students

Identifying Non-traditional Gifted Students Gifted students are defined as those who excel in academic subjects such as reading, science, or math. Some students do exceptionally well in visual art or playing musical instruments, while others exhibit strong leadership qualities. All of these are defined in the Americas School Act of 1994. The term gifted and talented when used in respect to students, children or youth means students, children or youth who give evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop such capabilities (Ryser, McConnell, 2004). Gifted children are sometimes called asynchronous due to their physical/emotional growth not corresponding to their intellectual growth. Traditionally, gifted students have been under-served or go unidentified due to schools being unable to provide advanced placement or the lack of curriculum for these students. If a student shows signs of boredom, lack of interest or diagnosed with attention deficit disorder, the score of such student may not have reflected their true potential. Times have not changed in regard to this type of students. Many of these students are still in regular classrooms without the opportunity of advanced placement, specific gifted classrooms or additional discovery classes to service their needs. The Federal No Child Left Behind Act has left little room for helping these students attain their full academic and/or talent goals. Combining these factors with the gifted children who are not identified due to not being able to perform well on standardized tests, or a low socioeconomic culture and those with learning disabilities that accompany their giftedness presents a dilemma for most school districts (Lardner, 2004). However, the first step for developing curriculum for schools is the identification process. 1. Problem statement This paper is meant to examine the problems and research that has been done in the area of identifying the students that may show extreme giftedness in one subject and perform low in another, those who may be overlooked due to cultural, linguistic or ethically diverse backgrounds and those students who may not score well on standardized tests; to include twice exceptional students. Identification and low representation of culturally, linguistically, and ethnically diverse (CLED) students have been a concern with researchers and educators in our country: (Lohman, 2005), (Pierce et al., 2007). Considering the changing demographics within schools and pressure from the government and funding issues, educators must examine how to change identification procedures and services to adequately recognize and develop these students talents (Briggs, 2008). Even though cultural diversity has become more prominent in in education, CLED students are more identified in the remedial classes and underrepresented in gifted and talented programs (Briggs, 2008). National surveys show that only 10% of those students performing at their highest level are CLED students even though they represent 33% of the school population (Gallagher, 2002). The issues of identifying and assessing such students are highly important due to various reasons, but first of all because the absence of proper educational approach and environment hinder the development and future success of a great number of people, which undermines the very mission of education. Researching methods and approaching for identification and assessment of nontraditional gifted students will help to address this deficiency of our educational system. 2. Literature review on identification and assessment of nontraditional gifted students Assessing the nontraditional gifted student has become a growing problem in school districts across America. While doing a review of existing literature on the problem of identification of gifted students, one can outline 3 major types of nontraditional gifted students. Each type of such students, its identification and relevant research will be described below. 2.1. Gifted students missed by testing Various identification methods are used to identify gifted learners. There are those who still believe that IQ tests can be the way to measure intelligence; Schroth and Helfer (2008) refer to Gottfredson who states that proponents of traditional instruments for measuring IQ believe that such tests are not biased against blacks, other ethnic minority groups who are English speaking, or other native born people in the United States predicting well for all subgroups. Schroth and Helfer (2008) reference Ford (2003) who believes that the same groups along with low-SES students are discriminated against by standard tests because such tests are biased against process that is color blind or culture blind, Eurocentric, monolithic and narrow (Schroth Helfer, 2008). The authors go on to support the models referenced in Renzulli Reis (2007), and Sternberg (2002,2003), regarding those who believe in utilizing multiple measures for identifying gifted students. Such measures include portfolios, observations, teacher, parent or peer nominations and test scores and may be used to identify gifted students as well as to identify those students who may be missed using only traditional tools (Schroth Helfer, 2008). There are many factors that influence identification and availability of gifted programming to CLED students. The assessment tools that are used, educator bias, the perception of cultural behaviors, quantity and quality of teacher preparation for working with CLED students, and degree of variety of instruction strategies influence the identification and services provided for CLED students (Briggs, 2008). Language barriers, non-stimulating environments, fear of not teaching to the test and the belief that few gifted students can be found in CLED students also influence under-identification of these groups (Briggs, 2008). Unfortunately, tests play a major role in identification, referral, and placement of gifted students. Due to students not scoring well on standardized tests, teachers need to create and use tests and assessments that are culturally responsive (Ford, 2010). 2.2. Gifted students with a learning disability Other learners that are not identified or serviced properly nationwide are gifted learners with a learning disability. Gifted/learning disabled students are students with high intellect (superior intellectual ability) who have low performance in a specific academic area such as math, reading or written expression. This is not due to the absence of educational opportunity or a health problem (McCoach, 2001). McCoach describes three types of gifted/learning disabled students. The first student does well in elementary school when the learning disabilities are less distinct and they still participate in gifted programs. As the work progresses within that students disability, he/she may begin to experience learning difficulties which leads to underachievement. These students are not normally identified as learning disabled due to the high achievement in elementary school. The second type is described as learning disabled but also gifted. Since such students have severe learning disabilities, they are seldom identified as gifted. The third type is the student that is not identified as either gifted or disabled. This students disabilities hide their gifts and the gifts conceal their disability, creating a smokescreen which is referred to as masking within the definition of gifted/learning disabled students (McCoach, 2001). Masking refers to the principle that many gifted students with learning disabilities have patterns of strengths and weaknesses that make them appear to have average abilities and achievement (McCoach,2001). So therefore, these students do not get identified as gifted or learning disabled. Some advocates believe that intelligence scores will be lower for these students, thereby hindering their identification as either gifted or learning disabled (McCoach, 2001). McCoach goes on to quote Waldren and Saphire (1990): the primary problem with the use of intelligence test to identify gifted students with LD is that the disability may lower their IQ score so dramatically that the students do not qualify for inclusion in the school districts criteria for gifted, even though they demonstrate strong abilities in some areas. 2.3. Twice-exceptional students The term twice-exceptional is used to describe students who are gifted and identified with a disability (Baum Owen, 2003). There has been extensive research identifying twice exceptional students. Identification is a problem due to a misdiagnosis of the student (Webb, et al., 2005). The challenge is still the under representation of students with disabilities in gifted programs. The question is not whether these students exist but how to serve them when they need two sets of services (Rizza Morrison, 2007). There is evidence to show that there is a large amount of students who are gifted with behavioral disabilities (Baum Olenchak, 2002, Neihart, 2000). One example of twice exceptional would be a student identified as gifted with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This particular disorder when combined with giftedness is difficult to diagnose due to the many similarities between ADHD and gifted characteristics. The difficulty differentiating between characteristics of giftedness and those of ADHD, and recognizing when they coexist, can easily lead to inaccurate identification. Gifted and ADHD children often exhibit similar behaviors: hyperactivity, disruptive behavior, challenges to authority, and social/emotional development (Leroux Levitt-Perlman, 2000). Leroux Levitt-Perlman referenced Clark (1992) regarding hyperactivity, which can occur in both gifted children and children with ADHD and is often the first characteristic a diagnostician will see. However, hyperactiv ity may manifest itself in different ways. The gifted child may show focused energy, whereas the child with ADHD is largely unfocused (Leroux Levitt-Perlman, 2000). In addition, both gifted children and children with ADHD may challenge authority. The challenging authority characteristic in gifted children compared to children with ADHD may be exhibited differently. According to Clark, gifted children are curious and want to ask questions, this is part of their nature. The challenge from ADHD children has been observed to be more hostile and aggressive in manner. Even though both types of children can disrupt the daily school environment, the causes are different (Clark, 2008). The disruptive behavior is presented in both gifted and ADHD children. For the gifted child, disruptive behavior is associated with boredom in response to unchallenging activities, curriculum, and learning style . Disruptive behavior in the ADHD child is the result of any or all of the ADHD core symptoms: inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity (Clark, 2008). The ADHD child can easily become distracted by outside environment and/or stimuli, or even by own thoughts. ADHD students have weak organizational skills which makes staying on task a challenge. Too strict of an environment can lead to a disruption in the classroom as well. In the gifted/ADHD child the frustrations of impulsivity, inattention, and hyperactivity, combined with under stimulation can lead to oppositional behaviors (Leroux Levitt-Perlman, 2000). When the social/emotional development aspects are considered, there are similarities for both gifted and ADHD children as well. The gifted student might interact maturely with adults but be less competent with his peers, unable to read the social cues that tell him his behavior is not within social norms for children his age. The gifted childs intellectual and/or creative ability is more advanced than the emotional level, along with the sense of self (being different than other students), which can cause social isolation. The ADHD child shows immaturity and does not pick up on social clues, leading to rejection from peers. Both of these can cause emotional outbursts and inappropriate behaviors (Leroux Levitt-Perlman, 2000). Clark references Mendaglio when stating that when the two of these are combined in one child, there is a heightened sense of of alienation, sensitivity, and overreaction ( Clark, 2008). 3. Synthesis of relevant research and findings There are important issues that need to be considered when developing a method for identifying gifted or talented students: gifted students will exhibit their talents not only in a certain domain but also within a specific area of interest. A student may perform well on classroom activities but with independent study, may show a deeper level of theoretical understanding within the same subject. Giftedness is a dynamic concept. A test score may not represent how a childs gifts may be developed into talents, especially for students who do not have the opportunity for out-of-school activities. Talents are shown by students who have disabilities, or who come from different ethnic, cultural, and economic backgrounds and finally, early identification has proven important in developing gifts into talents (Johnsen 2009). In order to avoid the scantiness of test assessments, Ford suggests that assessment should include answers to the following questions (Ford, 2010): Are the measures valid and reliable for the specific culturally different students and group? How can educators remove the bias in the measurements they use or must adopt for evaluation and gifted education decisions? Have the students had the opportunity to be assessed in ways that are compatible with how they learn and communicate? Finally, do the students have the opportunity to be evaluated via more authentic assessments; skits, presentations, speeches, research, and other models of their learning? . Moreover, concerning broadening the spectrum oh approaches to students, Ford (2010) suggests in her article, Culturally Responsive Classrooms: Affirming Culturally Different Gifted Students the use of the culturally responsive classroom which is characterized by five components. The five components include; teachers philosophy, learning environment, curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Ford believes that when teachers become more self-reflective, are able to recognize cultural differences amongst students and themselves, and create classrooms that are more culturally responsive, they can decrease cultural misunderstandings and miscommunication with CLED students (Ford, 2010). For gifted students with learning disabilities, the masking concept creates problems for school psychologists, they can not possibly test all students who are performing at an average level to look for disguised learning disabilities. Until these students exhibit underachievement, there are not clear suggestions or empirical research to help identify these students. Teachers and specialists focus on the students disabilities, so therefore the strengths and talents of the student go ignored. The teachers and/or specialists attention is focused on the disability so little or no attention is given to the students gifts or talents (Baum, 2001). The techniques that are used for the disability may very well lack the characteristics gifted students require for successful learning and thus inhibit the attempt of that technique. Baum suggests that using instructional strategies that provide balance between the strengths and weaknesses of the gifted/learning disabled will contribute to an auth entic, challenging curriculum (Baum, 2001). The pragmatic problem concerning twice-exceptional learners is identifying these children like those that are gifted/ LD. This agrees with the case that many children who are gifted go unidentified by the use of standard IQ tests, and currently, many of the current diagnostic measures are less than perfect form many ADHD children (Leroux Levitt-Perlman, 2000). Leroux Levitt-Perlman (2000) promote that the skills and talents within individuals must be expanded to include and acknowledge the strengths of the gifted/ADHD child and go on to comment on Maker, Neilson, and Rogers (1994) approach that combines Gardners theory of multiple intelligences and a matrix of problem types to design ways to identify and serve the diversity and skills in students (Leroux Levitt-Perlman, 2000). They surmise that students who were identified through this method made equal or greater gains in enrichment programs as those identified by traditional methods (Leroux Levitt-Perlman, 2000). McCoach suggests that identification of students with learning disabilities should parallel the identification of all other students with learning disabilities (McCoach, 2001). According to McCoach, the process must comply with both federal and state special education regulations while utilizing both ability and achievement testing. McCoach (2001) suggests that authentic assessment (portfolio with works of the student, written works, informal reading inventories) should be used in correlation with standardized methods of achievement. Conclusion The problem of identification and assessment of nontraditional gifted student is one of the important educational issues. Review and analysis of relevant research have shown that the so-called nontraditional gifted students may be divided into three groups: gifted students missed due to imperfection and limited nature of current testing system, gifted learners with learning disabilities and twice-exceptional learners. Methods of identification and assessment for the three groups differ from each other. Major finding and suggestions for the problem are: developing authentic assessments aimed at addressing various types of skills and eligible for discovering different talents, creating a culturally responsive classroom and providing necessary background to the teachers, using instructional strategies in order to provide balance between the strengths and weaknesses of the gifted and learning disabled learners and addressing multiple types of intelligence via creating different problem t ypes to design ways to identify and serve the diversity and skills in students. Sources Baum, Susan. (2001). Dual Differentiation: An Approach for Meeting the Curricular Needs of Gifted Students with Learning Disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 38(5), 477-490. Baum, S., Olenchak, F. (2002). The alphabet children: GT, ADHD and more. ! Exceptionality, 10, 77-91. Baum, S., Owen, S. (2003). To be gifted and learning disabled: Strategies for helping bright students with LD, ADHD, and more. Mansfield Center, CT: Creative Learning Press. Clark, Barbara. (2008). Growing up gifted: developing the potential of children at home and at school. Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Briggs, Christine. (2008). A National View of Promising Programs and Practices for Culturally, Linguistically, and Ethnically Diverse Gifted and Talented Students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 52 (2), 131-145. Flint, Lori J. (2001). Challenges of Identifying and Serving Gifted Children with ADHD. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33 (4), 62-69. Ford, Donna Y. (2010). Culturally Responsive Classrooms: Affirming Culturally Different Gifted Students. Gifted Child Today, 33 (1), 50-53. Gallagher, J.J. (2002). Societys Role in Educating Gifted Students: The Role of Public Policy. Storrs, CT: The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented. Johnsen, Susan K. (2009). Practices for Identifying Gifted Students. Principal, 88 (5), 8-14 Lardner, Cynthia M. M. (2004). Helping Gifted Children Reach Their Potential. Michigan Bar Journal, 18-20. Leroux, Janice A. Levitt-Perlman, Marla. (2000). The Gifted Child with Attention Deficit Disorder: An Identification and Intervention Challenge. Roeper Review, 22(3), 171-177 Lohman, David F. (2005). Identifying Academically Gifted Students: An Aptitude Perspective. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49 (2), 111-138 McCoach, Betsy D. Kehle, Thomas J. Bray, Melissa A. et al. (2001). Best Practices in the Identification of Gifted Students with Learning Disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 38 (5), 403-411. Pierce, R. L. et al. (2007) Development of an Identification Procedure for a Large Urban School Corporation: Identifying Culturally Diverse and Academically Gifted Elementary Students. Roeper Review, 29 (2), 113-118. Pfeiffer, Stephen I. (2003). Challenges and Opportunities for Students Who Are Gifted: What the Experts Say. Gifted Child Quarterly, 47 (2), 161-169. Renzulli, Joseph S. Reis, Sally M. (2007). A Technology Based Resource for Challenging Gifted and Talented Students. Gifted Education Press Quarterly, 21(4), 2-3 Rizza, Mary J. Morrison, William F. (2007). Identifying Twice Exceptional Children: A Toolkit for Success. Teaching Exceptional Children Plus, 3(3) Article 3. Retrieved 6 April 2010 from http://escholarship.bc.edu/education/tecplus/vol3/iss3/art3. Ryser, G.R. McConnell, K. (2004). Scales for Identifying Gifted Students. Waco TX: Proofrock Press. Smith-Collins, Searetha. (2007). The Unserved, Under-Served, and Inappropriately Served: Educating Gifted and Talented Minority Students. Gifted Education Press Quarterly, 21(4), 4-9 Sternberg, R.J. (2002). A Reflective Conversation with Robert J. Sternberg about Giftedness, Gifted Education, and Intelligence. Gifted Education International, 16 (3), 201-207 Schrorth, Stephen Helfer, Jason A. (2008). Identifying Gifted Students: Educator Beliefs Regarding Various Policies, Processes, and Procedures. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 32 (2). 155-179. Van Tassel-Baska, Joyce Brown, Elissa F. (2007). An Analysis of the Efficacy of Curriculum Models in Gifted Education. Gifted Child Quarterly, 51(4), 342-358. Webb, J. T. Amend, E. R. Webb, N. E. Goerrs, J. Beljan, P., Olenchak, F. R. (2005). Misdiagnosis and dual diagnosis of gifted children and adults. Scottsdale, AZ: Great Potential Press.

Shakespeares Hamlet - The Melancholy Hamlet :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

Melancholy Hamlet      Ã‚  Ã‚   In Shakespeare’s tragic drama, Hamlet, the multi-faceted character of the hero is so complex that this essay will enlighten the reader on only one aspect of his personality – his melancholy dimension.    A.C. Bradley in Shakespearean Tragedy presents convincing evidence regarding the true extent and depth of the hero’s melancholy sentiment:    But there is a more formidable difficulty, which seems to have escaped notice. Horatio certainly came from Wittenberg to the funeral. And observe how he and Hamlet meet (I.ii.160). . . . Is not this passing strange? Hamlet and Horatio are supposed to be fellow-students at Wittenberg, and to have left it for Elsinore less than two months ago. Yet Hamlet hardly recognizes Horatio at first, and speaks as if he himself lived at Elsinore (I refer to his bitter jest, ‘We’ll teach you to drink deep ere you depart’). Who would dream that Hamlet had himself f just come from Wittenberg, if it were not for the previous words about his going back there? How can this be explained on the usual view? Only, I presume, by supposing that Hamlet is so sunk in melancholy that he really does almost ‘forget himself’ and forgets everything else, so that he actually is in doubt who Horatio is. (370)    It is obvious that from the very outset of this tragedy there is a melancholic protagonist. And the depressing aspect of the initial imagery of the drama tend to underline and reinforce Hamlet’s melancholy. Marchette Chute in â€Å"The Story Told in Hamlet† describes some of this imagery of the opening scene:    The story opens in the cold and dark of a winter night in Denmark, while the guard is being changed on the battlements of the royal castle of Elsinore. For two nights in succession, just as the bell strikes the hour of one, a ghost has appeared on the battlements, a figure dressed in complete armor and with a face like that of the dead king of Denmark, Hamlet’s father. (35)    Horatio and Marcellus exit the ghost-ridden ramparts of Elsinore intending to enlist the aid of Hamlet. The prince is dejected by the â€Å"o’erhasty marriage† of his mother to his uncle less than two months after the funeral of Hamlet’s father (Gordon 128). There is a post-coronation social gathering of the court, where Claudius insincerely pays tribute to the memory of his deceased brother.

Scientific Developments During the Renaissance Essays -- European Hist

Scientific Developments During the Renaissance Historians often refer to the renaissance as a Scientific Revolution. It was during this period that Nicolas Copernicus first suggested the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. This was groundbreaking, as previous to this it was generally thought that the Earth was stationary, and all the planets, including the Sun, orbited the Earth. It was also Copernicus' theory that directly led to the discoveries of Kepler, Galileo and Newton. It could therefore be argued that Copernicus' discovery was the most important of the Renaissance. However, the huge advances in the field of astronomy often overshadow many of the developments in other scientific fields, where the scientists Vesalius, Harvey and Boyle also made an impact. Copernicus' theory, outlined in De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium (`On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies,' 1543) is often cited as the greatest discovery of the renaissance. However, at the time of its publication, in the year of Copernicus' death, the theory was widely disregarded. The historian Arthur Koestler comments that `it does not seem to have generated heated discussion.' Moreover, the theory wasn't wholly invented by Copernicus; it was merely revived from ancient texts, and the publication was postponed until the year of Copernicus' death, for fear of public reaction. The astronomer Galileo comments on this: Our teacher Copernicus, who though he will be of immortal fame to some, is yet by an infinite number (for such is the multitude of fools) laughed at and rejected. This evidence throws a somewhat uncertainty onto whether Copernican theory is as important as previously suggested. It would appear that the hypothesis made little or ... ... universe today. Kepler used mathematics to support and strengthen Copernican theory as well as hypothesising the laws of planetary motion. Galileo became well known, due to his findings with his telescope, whereas Copernicus' and Kepler's ideas were largely ignored. Galileo again proved Copernican theory by discovering sunspots and the infinity of the universe. I therefore suggest, in response to the question, that there was not one discovery in the renaissance that was more significant than the others, but that the work of these three scientists was equally significant, in that they provided evidence for an astronomical theory, that is still believed today. The discoveries in other fields such as medicine and chemistry were undoubtedly important, but I feel that the discoveries made by Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo were the most significant of the renaissance.

Cpu Research Paper

CPU: Past, Present,   â€Å"A CPU (central processing unit) is the â€Å"brain† of the computer; it follows the instructions of the software to manipulate data into information. † (Sawyer, 2010, p. 208) The CPU performs logic and arithmetic operations, controls instruction processing, and supervises the overall operation of the computer. The main components of the CPU are the CU (control unit) and the ALU (arithmetic/logic unit). (Dugger & Gerrish, 1994, p. 78) The CPU also has registers which temporary store data during processing, and buses that act as roadways which transmit bits of data within the CPU and to other components on the motherboard. CPU: The control unit deciphers the instructions from the input and moves them into memory. For each instruction the CPU will fetch the instruction, decode the instruction, execute the instruction, and store the result. These four basic operations are known as a machine cycle. The control unit is therefore responsible in th e CPU to instruct and control where the data goes to and what will happen to it. (Sawyer, 2010, p. 208)ALU: The arithmetic/logic unit executes data that the control unit has sent to it. It performs basic arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The ALU also performs basic logic operations such as comparing two numbers to see if they are equal, less than, greater than, or not equal. (Dugger & Gerrish, 1994, p. 581) Registers: â€Å"Registers are high-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing. † (Sawyer, 2010, p. 209) The CPU contains several types of registers such as an instruction register, address register, storage register, and an accumulator register.These registers may store a program instruction, store data while being processed, or store the results of a calculation. Without the registers the control unit or arithmetic/logic unit could not complete their work. Buses: â€Å"A bus is a group of parallel c onductors which carry information. † (â€Å"Microprocessors,† 1983, pp. 2-2) The conductors may be wires in a cable, foil patterns on a printed circuit board, or microscopic metal deposits in a silicon chip. Buses act as data roadways to get data from one place to another as needed. The term CPU/central processing unit has been in use since the 1960s.Nowadays, we are more familiar with the term microprocessors which are CPUs that are manufactured on integrated circuits in a single-chip package. However, before getting into today’s technology I will take a look at the past CPU technology. Past Exactly which computer was the first electronic computer completed in the United States is a controversial subject. Iowa State University claims that the Atanasoff-Berry Computer at ISU was completed in 1942 just before its creator was called up for duty in the war effort. (Munns) Another computer at the University of Pennsylvania which was funded by the military was complet ed in 1946 by J.Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. First Generation: Eckert and Mauchly’s invention was called the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator, or as many now know it, as ENIAC. This first generation computer weighed 30 tons and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes. ENIAC could do 5000 additions per second. Each specific sequence of calculations had to be hard-wired into the machine. To change programs, ENIAC had to be completely rewired. ENIAC is generally known as the first electronic computer in the United States. However, since ENIAC could not store a program it did not have, what we would call, a CPU. Dugger & Gerrish, 1994, p. 571) In 1945 John von Neumann created a design for a computer system. His design included four basic units for a computer: a CPU, an input device, an output device, and storage. (Dugger & Gerrish, 1994, p. 571) In 1946 John von Neumann joined with Eckert and Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania to create the Electronic Discrete Vari able Automatic Computer (EDVAC). EDVAC was completed in 1949. It contained almost 6000 vacuum tubes and had 12,000 diodes. EDVAC covered 490 square feet of flooring and weighed almost 9 tons. It required thirty people to operate it.EDVAC is considered the first truly programmable electronic computer that included a central processing unit. No doubt the CPU was enormous, but still a recognizable CPU. (â€Å"EDVAC†) Second Generation: In 1954 Texas Instruments introduced the silicon transistor. This revolutionized computer technology and created the Second Generation of computers. Transistorized CPUs of the 1950’s and 60’s were no longer hampered by vacuum tubes and electrical relay. Second Generation computers were smaller, faster, more rugged, and more reliable. â€Å"With this improvement, more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several rinted circuit boards containing discrete transistor components. † (â€Å"Central Processing Unit† ) Third Generation: The development of integrated circuits and their use in computers began in the mid 1960’s. This shift in technology brought about the Third Generation of computers which were faster, more reliable, cheaper to operate and much smaller. Throughout the advances in computer technology and electronics the CPU continued to become faster and smaller. Fourth Generation: In the early 1970’s, Ted Hoff at Intel invented the first microprocessor.Essentially, this was the first time that a complete processing unit was contained within a single chip and it revolutionized the way computers were applied and designed forever. This is where the Fourth Generation of computers was born. The Intel 4004 was a four bit device, measured 1/8 inch by 1/6 inch, and could execute 60,000 operations per second. (Dugger & Gerrish, 1994, p. 574) By 1972 Intel had come out with an 8-bit microprocessor, the Intel 8008, and within a year had bettered it with the Intel 8080 which coul d execute about 290,000 operations per second.In 1979, Motorola developed a 16-bit microprocessor. The Motorola 68000 was very popular in the blossoming personal computer market. Around the same time Intel rolled out their 16-bit microprocessor; the Intel 8086. While other companies tried to compete in the microprocessor market, it was generally Intel and Motorola who were in the race to built smaller and better processors with each other. By the mid 80’s each had produced 32-bit microprocessors. Beyond: According to Moore’s Law, at our rate of technological development, the complexity of an integrated circuit will double in about 24 months.By the early 90’s, 64-bit microprocessors entered the market. Each succeeding processor is smaller and can produce data much faster. The 90’ saw Intel introduce its first Pentium chip and Motorola introduced their Power PC CPU. Throughout the 90’s Intel improved on its Pentium technology releashing the Pentium P ro, Pentium II, Pentium MMX, and Pentium III. In the late 90’s AMD introduced their Athlon CPU. The Athlon worked at 800 MHz. In 2000, both Intel and AMD released 1 GHz microprocessors in the Pentium 4 and Athlon CPU. By 2002, Intel’s Pentium 4 reaches 3. 06 GHz.By 2006, both Intel and AMD introduce dual-core processors. 64-bit processors have been around for use in mainframes and supercomputers, but now 64-bit processors are being made for personal computers. Present Today’s main competitors for CPU’s in microprocessors are Intel and AMD. Motorola sold off their semiconductor manufacturing section to become Freescale, and has basically bowed out of the CPU race. CPU’s of today are extremely fast. The new Intel Core i7-980X Processor Extreme Edition released the beginning of 2010 has six cores, 12 threads, a max turbo speed of 3. GHz , a 12 MB Smart Cache, and a clock speed of 3. 33 GHz. (â€Å"Intel Processors,†) â€Å"The faster a CPU run s the more power it consumes and the more waste heat it produces. † (Sawyer, 2010, p. 206) For that reason, rather than increasing clock speed, Intel and AMD have pursued using multi-core technology, which employs additional CPU cores and runs them in parallel. Dual, Quad, and multi-core processors are very popular today in CPUs for computers, games and other technology that needs a CPU. Future 128-bit microprocessors are still being developed. Some experts predict that advances in microprocessor technology will produce a 50 GHz processor by 2010, the kind of power that will be required to support such function as true speech interfaces and real-time speech translation† (Sawyer, p. 206) ClusterOnaChip (CoC) is a popular example of the future in CPU technology. Engineers are working on how to place thousands of more processors in a â€Å"cluster† on a single chip. IBM in collaboration with the Georgia Institute of Technology has created a prototype silicon-germaniu m hetero-junction bipolar transistor able to operate at a speed of 500 GHz at 4. degrees Kelvin. At room temperature, the transistor achieves a speed of 350 GHz. â€Å"This demonstrates that speeds of half a trillion cycles per second can be achieved in a commercial, silicon-based technology, using large wafers and low-cost, silicon-compatible manufacturing techniques,† says John D. Cressler, Byers Professor at Georgia Tech’s School of Electrical and Computer Engineering and a researcher at the Georgia Electronic Design Center at Georgia Tech. Our current technological knowledge is not good enough to produce the microprocessors and CPU’s of the future.We are limited by our current materials and in need of innovation to jump start us towards even smaller and faster CPU’s. One can only dream of the day when rather than having a bulky transistor made of silicon, we have processors that are scaled down to the size of an electron itself. Conclusion With Mooreà ¢â‚¬â„¢s Law in mind, we can see that over the past decades we have certainly obeyed his law. From ENIAC to EDVAC, to transistors, to integrated circuits and single chip microprocessors, CPU technology has evolved and is still evolving to bring us the computers that e want and need. Further advances into CPU technology will allow us to compute faster and realize scientific discoveries that can change our world for the better. Our thirst for deep space exploration could become a reality. Medical research will be simplified. The possibilities are endless. References (1983). Microcomputer Basics. In Microprocessors (pp. 2-2). Benton Harbor, MI: Heath Company. Central Processing Unit. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. spiritus-temporis. com/central-processing-unit/history. html Dugger, W. E. , & Gerrish, H.H. (1994). Electronics Technology: Devices and Circuits. South Holland, IL: Goodheart-Wilcox Company, Inc. EDVAC. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. spiritus-temporis. com/edvac/ Intel Processors. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. intel. com/products/processor_number/about. htm Munns, R. (n. d. ). First-Computer controversy finally nearing a conclusion. Retrieved from http://www. scl. ameslab. gov/abc/articles/first-computer. html Sawyer, W. (2010). Hardware: The CPU & Storage. In Using Information Technology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.